Shakespearian tragedy :: essays research papers

By Shakespeares time, the characteristics of tragedy in play had been redefined. In the plays of the early Greeks, the tragic protagonist was a noble man who rose to the heights of success only to be plummeted to defeat and despair by his own tragic flaw, or hamartia. The mend structure in these early tragedies was relatively straightforward the motive of the dramatist was to elicit pity and terror from the audience through empathy with the tragic hero.What once had been a relatively simple form was gradually altered by playwrights to allow for more depth in characterization, more flexibility in plot structure, and the divisor of comic relief. Hamlets situation, for example, is considered a tragic one although it differs from the relatively simple plots found in the earlier Greek tragedies. He is a nobleman, hero-worship by his countrymen, who strives to alter the world around him. Ultimately, he must forfeit his own life to see justice done. The plot that unfolds in Shakespear es drama embroils politics, murder, and domestic strife, but still evokes pity and terror in the audience, precisely as intended by the early tragedians.Students can analyze the elements of tragedy in Hamlet, comparing and contrasting Prince Hamlets plight with that of tragic heroes in Greek tragedies and in modern tragedies. Suggested modern tragedies for such a comparison include Death of a Salesman, by Arthur Miller, and Mourning Becomes Electra, by Eugene ONeill.The play takes play in Denmark. Young Prince Hamlet has found out that his father honest-to-god King Hamlet had been killed by his uncle Claudius, who had taken the throne. The wraith of his dead father pleads for him to revenge his death most foul. Hamlet under great pressure and strain becomes, or acts insane.

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olauda Equiano Essay -- Slave

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olauda EquianoThe fib by Olaudah Equiano gives an interesting perspective of slavery both within and outside of Africa in the eighteenth century. From these literature we can gain insight into the religion and customs of an African culture. We can also see how developed the system of trade was within Africa, and worldwide by this time. Finally, we hear an insiders view on being enslaved, how slaves were treated in Africa, and what the treat handst of African slaves was like at the hands of the Europeans.Olaudah spends a good part of the narrative acquainting the reader with the customs of his hoi polloi. He describes the importance of hygiene to his people. Their overall health and vigor was helped by their penchant for cleanliness, and it makes them seem more advanced. This is an interesting development considering the problems that a lack of hygiene can lead to.His description of a wedding also seems very modern, but the importance of danc e in the festivities shows another expression of Olaudahs people. The dance defined the different groups within their village. First, and most important, were the married men, followed by married women, single men, and lastly unmarried women. The groups also used the dance to match stories or tell events that were important to them. This practice probably also strengthened the bonds within the groups.Olaudah also wrote about the division of chores within his village. The women were responsible for the spinning and weaving, and the men took care of the building. It is interesting to note the similarity of their dress, and the fact that both men and women joined in battle when the village was at war. They did not, however, sleep in the like ... ...rall his preaching was very good one master even carried him when he was too tired to walkIn sharp contrast to that treatment was the treatment he describes at the hands of Europeans. In his own words, they treat him with brutal cruelty . They seem to have a callous disregard for their captives, and treat them like brutal animals. From his description of the voyage, how the prisoners were stowed, and the way they were treated we gain proof that these Europeans felt the Africans were less than human.Overall, the narrative by Olaudah Equiano is a great first-hand look at the lives of some of the millions of people who were transported to other countries. They became a commodity sought after as laborers by a people they had never seen. The narrative also shows the folly of the European effect that the Africans were savages and could be treated accordingly.

The Russian Peasant in Pre-Revolutionary Times Essay -- Russian Histor

The Russian Peasant in Pre-Revolutionary TimesRussia in the late 19th and early 20th century was riddled with social and frugal hardships throughout the countryside and inner cities. The Russian peasant was faced with widespread poverty and poor living conditions throughout their entire life. The economic situation and the living conditions hatch the peasants and working class to rebel and begin the Russian revolution that would change the face of the country and impact the world forever. The peasants were the lowest ranking social aggroup in Russia. Some peasants own tracks of land that they farmed, spell others worked nobles land for money and food. Peasants had literally no rights under czarist rule. The nobles bought and sold the peasants as needed. The women usually cooked the food, while the men served the nobles and all of their guests. The peasants ate only a few basic foods, which consisted mainly of dark bread, porridge, cereal, or meal boiled in water.Peasant families who owned land normally owned strip farms. In strip farming, tracks of land were divided up into different parcels. Each peasant family in a colonisation had control over a certain number of parcels and they could farm it as necessary. This type of farming was ineffective because the different tracks of land were spread about, sometimes at a distance of miles. This resulted in peasants wasting time needless journeys-to-work, consumed land in boundary furrows and headlands, resulted in fields that were too remote to cultivate correctly and prevented innovation (Pallot, 276). This as well created tension between neighbors in disputes over confusing land boundaries. Peasants being forced to live together in small villages also increased the risk of... ... scare that swept the world in response to communist Russia.- Edelman, Robert. Proletarian Peasants. New York Cornell University Press, 1987.- Dunn, Stephen and Ethel Dunn. The Peasants of Central Russia. Holt, Rinehart and W inston Inc., 1967- Worobec, Christine D. Peasant Russia. DeKalb Northern Illinois University Press, 1995.- Inkeles, Alex. Social trade in Soviet Russia. Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1968.- Geiger, Kent. The Family in Soviet Russia. Cambridge Harvard University Press, 1968.- Pallot, Judith. Imagining the rational landscape in late imperial Russia. Journal of Historical Geography, 26, 2 (2000) 273-291. Links http//www.geocities.com/WestHollywood/2163/bolintro.html http//www.geocities.com/Athens/Cyprus/1169/ floor/revolut.html http//www.historychannel.com

History On Amazing Grace :: essays research papers

     "Amazing grace, how sweet the sound..." So begins one of the most beloved hymns of all times, a staple in the hymnals of many denominations. The author of the words was John Newton, the self-proclaimed wretch who oncewas lost but then was found, saved by amazing grace. Newton was born in London July 24, 1725, the son of a commander of a merchant ship which sailed the Mediterranean. In 1744 John was impressed into service on a man-of-war, the H. M. S.Harwich. Finding conditions on board intolerable, he deserted but was soon recaptured and publicly flogged and demoted from midshipman to common seaman. Finally at his own request he was exchanged into service on a slave ship, which tookhim to the coast of Sierra Leone. He then became the servant of a slave trader and was brutally abused. Early in 1748 he was bring through by a sea captain who had known Johns father. John Newton ultimately became captain of his own ship, onewhich plied the slave trade. A lthough he had had some earliest religious instruction from his mother, who had died when he was a child, he had long since given up any religious convictions. However, on a homeward voyage, while he was attemptingto steer the ship through a violent storm, he experienced what he was to refer to later as his "great deliverance." He recorded in his journal that when all seemed lost and the ship would surely sink, he exclaimed, "Lord, have mercy upon us." Laterin his cabin he reflected on what he had say and began to believe that God had addressed him through the storm and that grace had begun to work for him. For the rest of his life he observed the anniversary of May 10, 1748 as the mean solar day of hisconversion, a day of humiliation in which he subjected his will to a higher power. "Thro many dangers, toils and snares, I have already come tis grace has brot me unspoiled thus far, and grace will lead me home." He continued in the slave trade for atime af ter his conversion however, he cut to it that the slaves under his care were treated humanely. In 1750 he married Mary Catlett, with whom he had been in love for many years. By 1755, after a austere illness, he had given up seafaringforever. He decided to become a minister and applied to the Archbishop of York for ordination.

Jane Eyre Essay: Following the Moral Compass in Jane Eyre

Following the Moral Compass in Jane Eyre Jane Eyre is the perfect novel about maturing a child who is treated cruelly holds herself to tugher and learns to steer her life forward with a driving force conscience that keeps her life within personally felt honorable bounds. I found Jane as a child to be quite adult-like she battles it out conversationally with Mrs. Reed on an adult level right from the beginning of the book. The hardship in her childishness makes her extreme need for moral correctness believable. For instance, knowing her righteous stubborness as a child, we can believe that she would later leave Rochester altogether rather than existent a life of love and luxury barely by overlooking a legal technicality concerning his previous marriage to a mad woman. Her childhood and her adult life are harmonious which gives the reader the sense of a complete and believable character.             Actually, well into this boo k I was afraid it was going to be another one of those English countryside, woman-gets-married novels. I was reminded of a friends comment a few years back to avoid the Brontes like the plague. But of course at that place is a little more than courting going on here. For example, if you compare Jane with one of Jane Austens young women coming into society, you have a bit more adventure, roughness, and radio link to nature. I dont think a Jane Austen character would wander around the forest, sleeping without cover in the wilds of the night to prove a moral point. Jane Eyre can get dirt under her fingernails--thats the difference. You also get more emotion in Jane Eyre, you feel with her, deep hate (for Mrs. Reed), religious conviction (with ... ...somewhat cryptic language. He simply had his mind elsewhere, which is probably why he ended up in India.             In fact, I am glad the book ended with the focus on the charact er of St. John instead of with Jane or Rochester, as it hints to us that the importance of the book is not about finding the right person, falling in love, and keep happily ever after. The theme of this book is about following your conscience. In this regard, Jane and St. John both did the same thing in this story They both had strong, driving consciences they both were tempted but pursued their course and they both found a satisfying life in the end. This book is not about developing a relationship with a romantic partner, but about developing a relationship and learning to follow and live in tune with your own moral conscience.

Jane Eyre Essay: Following the Moral Compass in Jane Eyre

Following the Moral Compass in Jane Eyre Jane Eyre is the perfect novel about maturing a youngster who is treated cruelly holds herself together and learns to designate her biography forward with a driving conscience that keeps her spiritedness within personally felt moral bounds. I found Jane as a child to be quite adult-like she battles it out conversationally with Mrs. Reed on an adult level right from the beginning of the book. The hardship in her childhood makes her extreme expect for moral correctness believable. For instance, knowing her righteous stubborness as a child, we can believe that she would later leave Rochester altogether rather than living a life of love and luxury simply by overlooking a legal technicality concerning his previous marriage to a mad woman. Her childhood and her adult life are harmonious which gives the reader the sense of a complete and believable character.             Actually, well into th is book I was afraid it was going to be another iodin of those English countryside, woman-gets-married novels. I was reminded of a friends comment a few years back to avoid the Brontes like the plague. But of course there is a small(a) more than courting going on here. For example, if you compare Jane with one of Jane Austens young women coming into society, you have a bit more adventure, roughness, and connection to nature. I dont moot a Jane Austen character would wander around the forest, sleeping without cover in the wilds of the night to prove a moral point. Jane Eyre can get dirt at a lower place her fingernails--thats the difference. You also get more emotion in Jane Eyre, you feel with her, deep hate (for Mrs. Reed), religious conviction (with ... ...somewhat cryptic language. He simply had his mind elsewhere, which is in all likelihood why he ended up in India.             In fact, I am glad the book ended with the focus on the character of St. tooshie instead of with Jane or Rochester, as it hints to us that the importance of the book is not about finding the right person, falling in love, and living happily constantly after. The theme of this book is about following your conscience. In this regard, Jane and St. John both did the same thing in this story They both had strong, driving consciences they both were tempted exclusively pursued their course and they both found a satisfying life in the end. This book is not about developing a relationship with a romantic partner, but about developing a relationship and learning to follow and live in tune with your own moral conscience.

The Grand Canyon Railway

One interesting feature of the southwestern United States is the world known as the Four Comers. the wholly place in the United States whither four slates meet at one point. Within the 130,000 square miles of the Colorado plateau in this region lie numerous wonders of character. The plateau contains eight national parks, twenty national monuments, as well as numerous other across the nation designated vault of heavens and huge tracts of national forests. This wealth of natural features and the cultures of the various Native American tribes in the region have make the area an of the essence(p) destination for tourists, in particular those interested in natural history and culture.The crown jewel for this region is gener all toldy considered to be the Grand Canyon, one of the seven natural wonders of the world. This wonder of nature is 190 miles long, one mile deep, and between 4 and 18 miles wide. The Grand Canyon covers 1. 900 square miles of the Colorado Plateau and is home to 1,000 species of plants 250 species of birds and 70 species of animals. A make out of Native American tribes are found in the region of the Grand Canyon, including the Hualapai, Hopi. Navajo and Havasupai (who live on the floor of a side canyon) The principal attraction to visitors is the homely size and beauty of the canyon itself.The walls of the Grand Canyon are made up of many layers of rock, with widely varying textures, colors, and hues. This panorama of nature changes by the season, weather, and clipping of day. Generally, the morning and late afternoon offer the most striking views for visitors to the canyon. The South marge in Grand Canyon National Park (Grand Canyon NP) is rough year-round, whereas the North Rim (also in the park) is closed in winter. In the summer months, Grand Canyon NP becomes quite crowded with visitors and motor vehicles.Consideration is being given by the National Park Service to ban vehicles from the park and move visitors around the park b y shuffle buses. Williams, Arizona, serves as one important jumping off point for visitors give outing to Grand Canyon NP, with the South Rim of the canyon only fifty-nine miles north of the town. Williams is closely identified with activate to the canyon and has even registered the trademark The Gateway to the Grand Canyon, which no others may use.At an elevation of 6,800 feet, Williams, by itself, has many attractions in the town and surrounding area such as lakes for swimming and fishing, horseback iding, and a downtown listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The surrounding Kaibab National Forest in the neighbourhood of Williams offers opportunities for camping, fishing, and hiking for both visitors and resident alike. The town has for many years been an important transportation hub for both educate and highway. Williams is closely identified with Route 66, also known as the Mother Road, that connected Chicago, Illinois and Santa Monica, California, long before the interstate highway carcass was developed.Williams has the last stretch of the original Route 66 bypassed by the interstate system (in this case, 1-40). Even before highways became highly developed, Williams has served as a railroad terminal (since 1882) for the forerunners of the Atchison, Topeka, & the Santa Fe Railroad (Santa Fe) the latter continues to serve the town today with freight-only service. The most habitual way for visitors to get from cither Williams or Flagstaff (thirty-two miles to the east) to Grand Canyon NP is by motor vehicle, although the pending restrictions on vehicles might be expect to change this somewhat.An attractive alternative for some visitors is to travel between Williams and the Grand Canyon by rail. The Grand Canyon Railway (GCRy) offers this option with one round-trip per day. This rail service, which operates purely as a tourist railroad, began operations in September 1989 and has provided daily service since that day (except for December 24 and 25). Historically, rail service on this line began much earlier but passenger service was tumble-down in the 1960s due to economic pressures from the automobile.Freight service from the Santa Fe was abandoned in 1974, with no work performed on the track between Williams and the Grand Canyon until 1989. The work to get the GCRy running was monumental, because all engines and passenger cars had to be acquired and only rebuilt. In addition, the depot at Williams and the adjoining Fray Marcos Hotel were in need of substantial refurbishing. In the depot, operating offices, ticket offices, a waiting room, and souvenir blackleg are found. All of this work was accomplished in a span of seven months to be ready for the September 1989 opening.Today, the GCRy provides an interesting and nostalgic way for visitors to travel to the canyon. During the summer months, daily round-trip rail service is provided by steam locomotive, and in the winter diesel locomotives are used due to the seve rity of weather conditions. For all service, passengers travel in railcars that date from 1923 and are reconditioned to approximate that time period. Departure from Williams is at 930 A. M. and arrival at Grand Canyon NP is at 1145 A. M. , in the center of the parks historic district at the 1910 Grand Canyon Depot.The train departs from the Grand Canyon at 315 P. M. and arrives back in Williams at 530 P. M. No smoking is allowed on the train in any of the railcars. Reservations can be made by calling a toll-free number, 1-800-THE TRAIN. Information about the train ride, but not reservations, is available on the railroads website, wvw. thetrain. com. Different classes of serviceareoffered to travelers, depending on the fare give and the car in which a passenger rides. The basic coach service is priced at $49. 50 per adult and $19. 50 per child.Snacks are available for purchase regimen Coke and Coke are complimentary in this class, with the latter served in GCRy keepsake bottles. Cl ub Class, which includes the availability of alcoholic beverages and complimentary coffee and pastries in the morning, is priced at an supererogatory $14. 50. The Coconino Main Class provides recliner chairs, a full continental breakfast, appetizers and champagne in the afternoon and the availability of alcoholic beverages for an additional $49. 50 per person. Coconino garret Class represents a further upgrade.The service level is the same as Coconino Main Class, but passengers ride in an upper level enclosed bean which provides unsurpassed views of the surrounding landscape. The highest class of service, Chief Class, is provided in a railcar with an open-air rear platform complimentary continental breakfast, coffee, tea, and juice are provided in the morning and champagne and appetizers in the afternoon. This class of service is priced at an additional $64. 50 per person. For all classes, the entrance fee to Grand Canyon NP is an additional charge.Oilier services are also availa ble from the GCRy for additional charges. Continental breakfast is served in the terminal for $5. 95 per person until the train departs. Narrated motorcoach tours of the South Rim of the Grand Canyon are available from the Fred Harvey Transportation Company (the concessionaire for Grand Canyon NP) of varying lengths, some of which include lunch. Packages are available which may include one or two nights at the Fray Marcos Hotel in Williams and one night at a hotel in Grand Ganyon NP.During the ride from/to Williams many natural and man-made venues can be seen. There is formal narration for some of these venues and a printed guide is available for purchase, which describes these sights and provides a history of the GCRy. Interestingly only a very limited view of the Grand Ganyon is available from the train just as it arrives at and departs from the park. In Coach Class, each railcar has an support who serves beverages (Coke and Diet Coke), goes around with snacks for sale, and oper ates in conversations with the passengers.During the summer, many of these attendants are college students on break from their studies. The Grand Canyon Railway uses costumed performers in a number of diametrical ways to simulate an earlier time period. Before the train departs from Williams, performers stage an Old West gunfight, just as was found some 100 years ago, Performers also move among the railcars often singing songs of the Old West, during the trip to the Grand Canyon. Passengers are encouraged to sing along with the performers.All of the performers are costumed in the type of dress found at the turn-of-the-century. On the return trip, the activities are slightly different. A group of performers stage a train robbery, just as was found during earlier times in the southwestern United States. Passengers are included in portions of the action, but none are actually robbed. Eventually, the sheriff captures the train robbers and takes them by to be put in jail. Passengers, especially younger children, enjoy this activity, which makes the trip back to Williams seem much shorter than it actually is.The other activity that some engage in is to take a nap, because many are fired due to their activities at the high altitude and in the low humidity of the Colorado Plateau. A recent survey conducted by the GCRy found that many passengers rate their train trip pay back as excellent. Perhaps just as important, these passengers say that they would recommend the GCRy trip to friends. Additionally, the most satisfied passengers were likely to return again.Passenger satisfaction derives from the varied experiences received during the round-trip ride and the Grand Canyon itself wish the latter experience not under control of the GCRy but rather the National Park Service. ?This case was prepared by Dr. Fredrick M. Collision and is intended for classroom use. The situations portrayed here do not imply either effective or ineffective management on the pun of the Gra nd Canyon Railway. The cast was written establish on published materials of the railroad, the National Park Service, the, Williams-Grand Canyon News and the authors personal experience.

What If Rizal Was Not Exciled

In July 1982 Jose Rizal was exiled as prisoner in Dapitan. When he arrived in Dapitan, he found it to be a sleepy little t experience. He thought of ways and means to make it clean, beautiful, and fresh. With the suspensor of his friend, father Sanchez, he made a map of Mindanao in front of the church. The map was made up of stones, earth, and grass and it serves as adornment that makes the town plaza beautiful. He and Father Sanchez, together with the citizens, had erected a lamp post in e truly corner of Dapitan.By stroke of luck, he won six thousand pesos from lottery ticket and he spent the amount in Dapitan. Modern agriculture implements were taken and transmitted from the United State and he taught the farmers how to use them. He bought sixteen hectares of land along the bay where he himself built a little house. He had become a farmer who himself worked hard, toiled, and intellectual in planting coffee and cacao and from 800 to 1,000 coconuts. (Retana, 1907) As a doctor, Ri zal was aware of a wide spread of malaria due to mosquito bites.In order to get rid of malaria, he drained the swap where mosquitoes were staying. He also directed the construction of water system to call for potable water for the town. (Retana, 1907) As a scientist, he collected, with the help of his pupils, different kinds of species of insects, birds, snakes, butterflies, shells, and plants which he sent, for purposes of identification, to Museum of Dresden in Europe. As payment of these species, Director A. B. Meyer sent him scientific books and journals, artificial eyes, microscopes, and surgical instruments since he did non accept money.He also observed three rare examples of animals that were named in his honor by European scientist, these were Draco rizali which is a small lizard know as a flying firedrake Apogania rizali a rare kind of beetle and the Rhacophorus rizali, a peculiar frog species. Rizal was also an inventor although he was not as inventive wizard as Thomas Edison. He invented a cigarette lighter which he called Sulpakan. The lighter used a compressed air mechanism. He sent it as a gift to his friend, Dr. Blumentritt. He also invented a wooden machine for making bricks which can produce intimately 6,000 bricks per day. Bantug, 1946 Craig ,1957 Kalaw 1930 Zaide, 1984) Rizal put up a school where he himself was a teacher. There were formal classes conducted from two to five o clock in the laternoon. His students, all of them were seventeen who were sons of leading citizens in Dapitan, had learned from him Arithmetic, Geometry, and two languages, side and Spanish. (Craig, 1927) It was in Dapitan where he treated the eyes of her mother and he succeeded because her mothers eyes were cured temporarily. Upon request of his mother when she returned in Manila after Rizal had treated her eyes, Rizal wrote a poem entitled My Retreat.Critics had agreed that this poem was the most profound and noble he ever composed, but, it was only second to M y Last Farewell. (Retana) George Taufer an American from Hong Kong proceded to Dapitan to have his eyes treated by Rizal. Mr. Taufer was accompanied by two young women, Josephine Bracken and Manuela Orlac. Rizal and Josephine met every time Mr. Taufer had scheduled for treatment. Because of their meetings, Rizal and Josephine fell in jockey with each other and they intended to get married. Rizal asked the Dapitan priest but the priest told him to secure permission to marry Josephine from Bishop of Cebu. however, upon learning about the marriage, Mr. Taufer attempted to cut his own throat but was prevented by Rizal by holding his two wrists. Mr. Taufer also became temporarily insane because he would loss Josephine if he married Rizal. When Mr. Taufer went back in Manila, Josephine went along with him in order to avoid tragedy. Josephine did not go to Hongkong when Mr. Taufer proceeded in that location. Josephine retured in Dapitan and there, Rizal and Josephine lived together like man and wife. (Russel & Rodriguez, 1923) If Rizal was not exiled in Dapitan the forgoing events and circumstances could not have happened.Dapitan would still be sleepy little town because it was Rizal who had awaken it. Illnesses of malaria and diarrhea are prevalent because swamp would not have drained and there will no potable water, respectably. The implements for agriculture are not modern because Rizal could no have won 6,000 pesos in lottery ticket and therefore modern agricultural implement could not have been taken from the United States. There is nothing in Europe specifically in Museum of Dresden that a Filipino great deal can be proud of as of today because Rizal could not have sent more than 400 articles of scientific value.The European scientist could not have acclamation Rizal because he could not have discovered the three rare specimens of animals. In fact, the European scientist, as token of appreciation to Rizal, had named rare specimen the rare specimen in his ho nor. In effect, even in Europe Rizal is being recognize to be a science because of his discovery and collection of different specimen of animals and plants. He could not even be an inventor for having invented a lighter and a wooden machine for making bricks because if he is in Manila, he would be very combat-ready in reforming the friars through peaceful means.If Rizal did not meet Josephine in Dapitan, the retraction issue will not exist. To allow Rizal to marry Josephine, the Spaniards wanted Rizal to peculiarity the retraction document which contain that he is denouncing all the books and articles that he had written against catholic religion and he had regain his faith in catholic religion. However controversy arises because some believe that Rizal signs it and so he married Josephine Bracken. Others said that his signature was not genuine and he did not marry Josephine Bracken.If Rizal was incarcerated in citadel Santiago, his movement is limited to his prison cell. Instead of being a farmer, scientist, and inventor, his attention and works would be focus in La Liga Filipina by writing about the abuses of friars and the reforms he wanted to undergo in governance by Spanish officials in the Philippines. (he is very accessible to he could still be imprisoned in Fort Santiago where his movement is confined in a prison cell. He could have been easily approached and consulted by Filipinos who wanted to stage uprising against Spanish government.If he was in Manila, he could have easily noticed the mistakes and mistreatments being done by the Spaniards to the Filipinos and therefore, he could have expressed his oppositions to these mistreatments. If Rizal was not exiled in Dapitan he could not have met Josephine whom he wanted to marry. Retraction controversy on Rizal regarding whether he became a catholic again or not could not have been an issue because the main reason why Rizal wanted to return in his religion is because he wanted to marry Josephine.La Li ga Filipina which he was actively involved could not be dormant. La Liga Filipina is a group which is derived from La Solidaridad and the Propaganda Movement. When Jose Rizal got exiled in Dapitan the Organization La Liga Filipina became inactive and later on split into two, the conservative had formed the Cuerpo de Compromisarios and the stem which is led by Andres Bonifacio had formed the secret group named the Katipunan. The La Liga Filipina would have still existed if Rizal was still n Manila because he would have continued his active participation as reformist to correct and reform the misadministration being conducted by the Spanish officials as well as the misdemeanor of friars in the Philippines. ) http//joserizal. info/ story/man_and_martyr/chapter13. htm http//joserizal. info/Biography/man_and_martyr/chapter14. htm http//www. mb. com. ph/node/236170/hero-exile-remembered http//agham. asti. dost. gov. ph/1st/rizalnat. htm http//joserizal. info/Reflections/retraction. htm

Ethics and Technology Essay

The biggest limitation of our existing system is its inherent in office to achieve its fundamental goal. Whatever happened to the dream of progress that redbrick technology would free people from drudgery, and e rattlingone would be able to live in comfort, spending their beat enriching the world and thinking great thoughts? Wasnt that what we really tidy sum out to achieve? Toward that goal, we tail now oblige virtually any region of the earth comfortably habitable. We can produce food and clothing in staggering quantities, at unbelievable rates of production, using very little labor in proportion to the output.We have greatly extended the life broom of our species, and we know how to cure or eliminate the suffering of a great range of diseases. We can communicate around the globe in less time than it enlists to hear the voice of someone across a room. An interesting question to consider is this if the technology necessary to live this way really could be developed, would it upshot in such a society? Starting from our present society, I would say absolutely not. The technology that could easily feed the world would probably contribute in mass starvation.The competitive system can produce the as wellls we need to create a future of freedom and enlightenment, but unless the system evolves, it will fly the coop against our using those tools to the benefit of humanity. The system must evolve. Were not spreading the benefits of advancing technology, were using it to exclude more and more people from the fruits of progress. sort of of laying off the excess workers and increasing the stress on those left behind, consider what would happen if we simply reduced the burden on everyone.We dont need to throw out our traditions of free enterprise and individual responsibility. We just need to revisit our vision of progress and see where we want to go, and where were heading. non all technology is hampering the societys progress. Technology was developed to eas e mans work and provide him with a little help . It wasnt invented so that we could just copy and paste an essay for our next paper, or download a ready made presentation from the internet or make google do all things for us.The web is what you make of it, you cant blame technology for ruining your work ethics. Its you whos become super work-shy and dependent I am from a time when technology is called progress and it was considered heretical to doubt its benefits. We tend to forget the years before antibiotics when people died from pneumonia and infections. We take for granted the warnings about kidney failure, liver damage and replacement therapy for intestinal flora that accompany todays bigger and better medications.Technology has made our lives very easy, but it turn, has made us lazy. I believe that if we continue to make and improve technology, there can be some really useful inventions. However, we can make sure that the improvements dont make us lazy, in very simple ways. W e can ask ourselves, does this pen that writes down our thoughts and tells us how to play correctly really need to be in everyones daily lives? Technology moves at a pace that can easily outrun respectable standards surrounding its use.The effects of technology on work ethics move at a similar pace with employers moving to establish ethical boundaries that face to infringe on employee privacy rights and restrict communication abilities. These tactics have led to courtroom battles, quick job terminations and complaints filed with the National Labor Relations Board. picky Purpose To inform my audience of the negative effects by becoming too dependent on technology. Central Idea By becoming too dependent on technology will give negative effects to our education, behavior and economic.Introduction According to study conducted by a company called McCan Worldgroup, one-year-old people are obsessed with their technology until the point that they would rather lose one of their most imp ortant sense than to lose Facebook, the internet and their cell phones. To them, losing the ability to explore and communicate via technology would be like a blind man losing his stick. According to Oxford dictionary, technology means machinery or equipment developed from scientific knowledge. Do you realized how much we depend on technology?

Life Without Music Written by a 4th Grader

Without medication, life would be a slue (Friedrich Nietzsche). What is the function of practice of medicine to life and to the indian lodge? By definition, medicament is the art or science of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of perception. medicament worldwide and without it, the macrocosm would be a totally different place, and in this essay I will discuss how. Firstly I will be discussing about how music is extremely important and then I will talk about a counter-argument on why this is not so.For my counter-argument, it will be based on the premise of modern music. Its the music that you choose 19-2000 by Gorillaz in their debut album Why is music important? Music is a universal language, but what does this mean? Music, or at least good music, conveys a lot of emotion, ideas and notions that be inexpressible in English, or any other language. What does music do? Music breaks this language barrier and provides lot with means of communication. It inspires common human feelings and bridges gaps between cultures that spoken languages give noticenot.It brings people together and creates universal community. afterward silence, that which comes nearest to expressing the inexpressible is music. Aldous Huxley Music is one of the best ways to evoke emotions healthily. It touches our emotional being and evokes moods and feelings that are sometimes difficult to express. It erect change a difficult mood and make it happy or excited it can change a light mood and take it deeper and more profound. For people who are not good at expressing their emotions, music is a very good method to do so.It has been shows that people with Aspergers Syndrome ( high-functioning autism) benefit from music. Bottling up emotions is extremely unhealthy. If music be the food of love, play on. William Shakespeare One good thing about music, when it ca-cas you, you feel no pain. -Bob Marley Music also genera tes an ambient atmosphere. You can use music in any environment to enhance and augment what is already there. For me, personally, music is my sanctuary. Music is my release of emotions and I love feeling the music.I put everything I have into it so I can put the emotions the composer was feeling when they wrote the piece. Then when Ive finished playing/ auditory sense I feel like Ive accomplished something great. Music is something that I can control and change to fit whatever Im feeling. Religious people also claim that music heightens their spirituality. Every worship on the planet uses music in some form or the other to enhance the soul, whether it is the rhythmic chants from Buddhism or the devotional songs in Hinduism.Music is recreational listening to soothing songs can be a way of relaxing and allowing your body and mind to take break from the monotony of life. Studies have proven that music can be a good way of helping your imagination develop There is nothing in the world so much like appealingness as music is. William P. Merrill There are other various benefits from music such as enhanced brain function, helping develop the imagination, and making sublunar and boring activities much, much more enjoyable Reality leaves a lot to the imagination. John LennonThere really is no objective answer to the question Why is music important. It inspires people and allows us to get in touch with our emotions in a way that is unique. For those amongst us who find it difficult to express ourselves, music can evoke reactions. Your mood can change from dark and depressed to elated and delirious happiness with just the selection of the right track and a hit of the play button. Music works wonders on creating a certain atmosphere. You can use music to liven up a boring party or to create a romantic ambiance.For my counter-argument I will modify Nietzsches quote by a little, Without Good music, life would be a mistake (Friedrich Nietzsche). I completely agree with Nietzsches statement of how without music, ones life is incomplete. In modern music there is no depth and emotion in their music and this can be seen from artists like Lady GaGa, Justin bieber, Katy Perry and various others. I shall quote from the song poker face by Lady GaGa, she repeats salamander face till infinity.There is no emotion or feelings conveyed in this type of music, therefore, life is incomplete without Good Music. In conclusion, music is essential in the lives of people as it plays a significant part that no other such form of entertainment can replace and conveys emotions and feelings no language can convey. 1 . https//www. google. com. sg/search? sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=what+is+music%2Fhl=en&q=music&tbs=dfn1&tbo=u&sa=X&ei=7uiXT6i5N5GzrAeWoY2oAQ&ved=0CCsQkQ4&bav=on. 2,or. r_gc. r_pw. r_cp. r_qf. ,cf. osb&fp

The King and His Role in Ancient Egypt

Janelle Richardson Professor Ogden Goelet Ancient Egyptian Religion First Paper 4/8/13 The mightiness and his role During the times of the Ancient Egyptians there were many spirits that the Egyptians stood by, one of which world the ideal of polytheism. The Egyptians live in a spiritual dethaw reign. Although they tend to follow the beliefs of the community that they lived in and around, they were for the most part free to wor post and practice whatever they may with whatever God they felt right.Another belief the Egyptians held onto was the belief in male monarchship and aim, Maat. The construct of Kingship during the times of the Ancient Egyptians was crucial to the unification of the Egyptian people. Through his associations with the Gods he was expected to observe the order or kinda maat of the land, which was inhabited by the Egyptian people. The exponent was responsible for keeping the peace and amongst the people and the land both figuratively and liter eithery. The k ing was tasked with protect the people from potential attacks from foreign lands.But perhaps most importantly the King served as the median between the people and the Gods. They were therefore expected to make offerings to Gods that would sate to their needs as deities, pleasing them and placing the king and thus his kingdom, his land and his people in good favor with the Gods. This was crucial because this meant that the Gods have blessed the land that the Egyptians gather on assuring lasted nourishment, the king had to feed his people, and if he alone managed to please the Gods on behalf of him and his people he was able to accomplish fair(a) that.But we cant forget the idea that when the people are happy the king is secure. All of the positive exchanges between the Gods and king were important in securing a pharaohs kingship and in the end giving them the opportunity to create and secure a dynasty for a farseeinger period of time. This is an important idea when discussing th e topic of the development of Religion in State. cope with to the construct of kingship, religion and ritual were a vital part of the Egyptian horticulture, thus a vital part in their unity, especially during times of tribal strife and war.Also key in the formation of religion is the Egyptians obsession over final stage, which could leave a dark air about the culture as whole, but the idea of an later on-life, life after(prenominal) death was brought to the Egyptians through the image of Gods. The Egyptians created a world of polytheistic ideals and rituals that reflected their beliefs Egyptians believed dated back to the time when gods control on earth, and by the law laid down by the King, their son and earthly representative. (Cerny 35).So being that the relationship that the Egyptian people had with the Gods and their importance in the trammel of chaos in their world the ideal of the Kings divinity was key for the survival of society and perhaps the sanity of society as well. Egypt was the firstborn large nation state, with a culture virtually restricted to that state, and thus was very self-contained in which kingship was an unquestioned presupposition of social orderindeed order was hardly conceivable without it. (Baines, 2).The Kings responsibilities stretched as far as the prevention of the collapse of their Egyptian state. Of course it was important to every Egyptian to be responsible for themselves and do their duties unto the land as the Gods may have it and they praised and celebrated and communed because of these rituals and these practices. But in these times, even if an Egyptian works as hard as he can consistently to please the Gods on his own if the king falls short of his duty as the Divine middleman, the Egyptians reap may not bloom crops sufficient enough to feed themselves of their families.The King as a Divine Creature Although out of the archives and data that has been put in over the past decades about Ancient Egyptian, the evidence that shows the King as being an actual divine being of the Gods, usually an incarnation of a finicky God or sometimes a mosh of multiple Gods the King was scene by the people as divine and a direct globe of the Gods, therefore the only person with the ability to be in communication with the God. The sun-god we are told elsewhere had appointed hum to be shepherd of this land, to keep the people alivein theory he was the officiant in every temple in the landand every religious ceremony and ritual was in a sense a royal ritual. (Fairman 1958, 76). The Egyptians also believed the Kings, if they werent to fail and disgrace themselves in the eyes of the Gods, received a several(predicate) treatment after death.The afterlife of a king wasnt thought to be the same as one of an Egyptian civilian, rather the Egyptian people believed that after the death of the kings cross over to the worlds of the divine, some believe that they become Osiris in the afterlife. The king This idea i s seen in many of the art pieces make by the Egyptians that referenced kings after their deaths and their relationship to the Gods, or in a lot of cases a particular God (For example The God Horus).Whole tombs at the highest level of grandiosity and tribute were made for kings after their deaths. Many rituals were had for the kings before and after their passing including the kings initial coronation which involve d the selection of the new Sacred Falcon, which was effected by Horus by means of an oraclespecial hymns were sung, one greeting the New Year and the second being concerned with ensuring the protection of the Sacred Falcon (Fairman 1958, 80).It was believed that the spirit of Horus enters the king at the coronation and guides the king along the path of maat. Then when the king died his spirit was merged with Osiris from where he could guide his successors. The King was key in the lives of the Egyptians. The King had a foot in both worlds, the secular and the spiritual, or rather the sacred, which were treated as one in the same thing by the Egyptians, at all times. The King was the religious leader and the law book simultaneously.The Kings was seen as a representation/manifestation of God in a flesh and entirely mortal carcass that served the God King for as long as they are to rule until their time to go and take part in their after-life begins The king, it is true, interprets the evidence, translating light beam and motion in terms of religious meaning, answering them by cultic action and speaking to a God who expresses himself in a strictly heliomorphic way (Assman 1989, 68). until now the Pharaohs ritual vestments were designed to show his power.The symbols of the gods were the kings tools of office. The crook, to reward the innocent, the flail, to punish the guilty, showing his authority to rule the two-lands, and the Ureaus Cobra or Eye of Ra seeing all that the Pharaoh did, good or evil. (Humphries). The Kings was responsible for keeping or der or Maat , the rule of order over the chaos that the Egyptians thought was waiting to instance the world, at any moment without the guidance of the Gods and the usefulness of the King.The focus was on balance, the people the Egyptians themselves were inclined to honor the Gods along with the King by living a life of obedience and balance so that they can rest assured that all w mad be well, they have pleased the Gods and they shall not be punished for any wrong doing. The kings notional strength came from the support of the gods and as long as this was maintained no ill could befall the country.There is little denying that the Egyptians didnt believe that their kings werent in part Gods themselves as represented by most of their art and writings. But this system that the Egyptians became so accustomed to held the potential to cause problems for the king. The key to life lived in balance is Maat but once this was lost, however, the kingdom was thrown into turmoil until a new ine xpugnable king, who had the support of the gods, took the throne. The Kings and the Egyptians found out that the Gods arent always pleased.The Integration of the Church and State and the Problems that it caused the King The Pharaoh was seen as the emissary of the gods and life was good as long as the religious rites were performed and maat was maintained, but what happened when maat wasnt contained? What problems arose for the king then, when something hasnt lined up with divine order? Though I stress the importance of the king in Ancient Egypt, we cant forget that not everything always went so smoothly for the Egyptians and those who ruled over them.Perhaps one of the most obvious drawbacks to being a king endowed with such divine responsibility is if and when the Gods were not perceived to be happy whether specifically at the kings actions or the actions of his people, the state of the kings position in his kingdom comes into question and under fire. These occurrences however, mig ht have helped balance out the Egyptians belief of the God identical ways of being for the king. The King is mortal and fallible, after all, the king is still human.This ideal is showcased in a lot of the literary texts of the New Kingdom, Many different types of human frailties and weaknesses characterize all the figures inThe Contendings of Horus and Seth (Wente 1972c, 108-126 translation and Lichtheim 1976, 214-223 translation), The gods were anthropomorphized from an early period in ancient Egypts history (Hornung 1982a, 105-107), and their portrayal both in figures and in text clearly is humanized. They have family problems. They bicker. They display moods (Silverman 1995, 53-54).In other words theyre human, just as they were and were witnessed to be in life outside of their association with the Gods. closing curtain Was the king divine? Its obvious now that the Egyptians without a doubt believed in the divinity of their king, some might even say that that belief was necessi ty for the survival of the Egyptians I would say that by definition and according to what most of society today thinks of to be divine, the answer is yes and no, the king wasnt really divine in the sense that he possessed magical powers that directly affected those around him and his people, or in the sense that the king was actually just God.But in accordance to what I believe as a member or todays society and from what I know of the Ancient Egyptians and their beliefs, I think that the king was divine, but I believe that by the same nature of the king being divine, so was every other Egyptian that lived during the time. at present this is simply my opinion and lines up directly with my personal beliefs in God, but in a less personal explanation, the presence and usefulness of the King in relationship to the Egyptian people and the order of the Egyptian world, served as a very sturdy backbone in the Egyptian society.Footnotes The silence of the god who expresses himself visually is balanced by the voice of the king which plays such an important part in the inscriptions. The king is the speaking god, spreading truth (Maat) upon earth as the Aten Spreads light and life. Sources and Bibliography Assmann, J. , The Name Formula, in The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, D. Lorton, trans. (Ithaca, NY 2001) 83-110. Bell, Dr. Lanny. Montclair State University. Divine Kingship in Ancient Egypt -Mythology and Iconography. N. p. n. d. Web. 08 Apr. 2013. . Cited for information on Horus Cerny, J. ,, Egyptian Oracles, Chap. 6 in R. A. Parker, A Saite Oracle Papyrus from Thebes (Providence 1962) 35-48 Dunn, Jimmy. King Ramesses I, Founder of the 19th Dynasty. King Ramesses I, Founder of the 19th Dynasty. Tour Egypt, n. d. Web. 08 Apr. 2013. . Fairman, H. W. The Kingship Rituals of Egypt, in Myth, Ritual and King ship Essays on Theory and Practice of Kingship, S. H. Hooke (Oxford 1958) 74-104 Hornung, E. , The Pharaoh, Chap. 10 in S. Donadoni, ed. , The Egyptians (Chicago a nd London 1997) 283-314. Hornung, E. , History as Celebration, Chap. 8 in Idea into Image (New York 1992) 147-164. Humphries, Ken. Egypt Was Pharaoh Divine. Egypt Was Pharaoh Divine. N. p. , n. d. Web. 08 Apr. 2013. Used as a study source Silverman, D. P. , The Nature of Egyptian Kingship, in Chap. 2 in D.OConnor and D. P. Silverman, eds. , Ancient Egyptian Kingship. Probleme der Agyptologie 9 (Leiden 1995) 49-92. Lichtheim, M. Stela of Sehetep-ib-re, Ancient Egyptian Literature I (Berkeley 1975) 125-129. Teeter, Emily. Festivals. Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt. Cambridge Cambridge UP, 2011. 56-75. Print. Wente, Edward F. , and Robert A. Oden. Response to Robert A. Odens The Contendings of Horus and Seth (Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1) A Structural InterpretationChicago University of Chicago, 1979. 105-07. Print.

Technology and Culture

There is no denying to the fact that changes occur in life as the institution develops in its technology. Traditions and customs, culture of each and every race in Malaysia get a setback in this case. An attempt to keep them alive is a contentious matter and become debatable as we are somehow modernized by the West. It is somehow painful and sad to see traditions and customs dying as we all humans have intense emotional bond with cultures and traditions but the stark reality have to be accepted that the world is a fix up of flux and change.There are several reasons to why our traditions and customs are abandoned. Firstly, the advancement in telecommunication has influenced our minds to choose between cultures to which one that are convenient. We tend to explore for and turn to the way as well as the one that is more convenient and are accessible. It is human nature for youths especially to adapt to changes faster. For instance, the existence of the favorable network called Faceb ook that enables us to connect with people from all walks of life by tho typing a persons name without actually discerning the person well.On festive seasons, we, young people need not going around visiting relatives and friends as well as going back to our individual hometowns anymore, we just wish them and greet them through the social network and phone them. Somehow, the tradition of visiting relatives and friends during festive seasons soon will be a tale of life. Furthermore, the technology has moved peoples interest to play traditional games to modern and practical(prenominal) games. Many youths nowadays are often categorize as the visual people.They often spend their time going to cybercaf or at home playing computer games to the wee hours. If you ask them about traditional games they would just stare blankly at you because they as well as children nowadays only know how to swipe on the gadgets that theirs parents have. Probably, they are somehow called heliophobia which means a person who is fear of sunlight as most of our traditional games are played outdoors. Traditional games have now been ruled over by virtual games and have now been an old-fashioned in youngsters mind.Moreover, the technology has equipped us with more knowledge and we become more open-minded and more rational in thinking. If we would like to know more about more information on a accredited thing or events, we could just click on the swipe and search information from the internet as search engines provides us with much information. Referring to books and newspaper have been sort of out-dated thing. On the other hand, we can now perk heathen dance through the advance video technology, YouTube.We no longer take the first step to actually ask our mentor or the cultural dance performer or instructor to train us to dance correctly. Even now, the cultural dance is called cultural cum modern dance in the video website. The younger generation eventually become more open-minded as they think what they are doing is cool and fashion has overpowered traditional wears in certain ethnics. All in all, advancements in technology surely have caused traditions and culture to get a setback.The government as well as the responsible government activity should organize campaigns and take action so that the young will know the legacy that our ancestors have practiced and deteriorateed on to us. Perhaps, a cultural dance much(prenominal) as lion dance, fan dance, bharatanatyam being performed on occasions will get younger generation to know their culture better. They will then pass on to the next generation. It is never too late to teach them on culture and traditions, which is a legacy to leave behind when we are gone exit a great impact on the next generation.

Government Essay

Government is an inevitable asset because human beings atomic number 18 savages and without government there would be heart and soul chaos. James Madison said If men were angels, no government is needed. People need a form of organized authority to create and inflict laws. Government plays a major role in everyday life, it provides people with creation services, set goals and public policies, maintains tradition and culture, and resolves conflicts. In this essay, I will be discussing politics and public administration.I will further explain how both are intertwined and would never be able to be separated from one another. In hearing the word politics, what usually springs to mind are images of government, politicians and their policies or more negatively the idea of corruption, s push asidedals and dirty politicians. The actual definition seems to have been obscured and almost broken by such representations and cliches that tend not to pinpoint the true essence which defines pol itics. Politics is a very emotive word and is used by opposite people to mean different things.There is no unifying theory of politics and hence no set boundaries of what can and cannot be said to be political. Politics is a broad term, which encompasses a wide range of activities and beliefs that help shape the modern world in which we live. The general contention is that politics is the support of government, either through influence, elections, or through the power and authority exerted by those who rule. In order to understand politics, and the role it fulfils, I feel it is crucial to contain to the beginning where the term politics originated.The word politics stems from the ancient Greek word polis, which means city-state. Ancient Greek society was divided into a parade of independent city-states individually possessing its own system of government. Therefore, politics can be defined as what concerns the state, a view currently held by the public. The putting surface be lief is that if slightlyone is to be involved in politics, then they hold a government office or position, whether it is in local government or the central government (Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http//en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Polis ). The Greek philosopher Aristotle identified the word politics is as politike, a practical science, which is concerned with the noble action of happiness of citizens (Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle). Politics is the conclusiveness making process, the settling of conflicts and the enforcing of goals and interests of citizens. Politics and public administration are closely linked, because public administration is defined as government management and examines the practices of governance.The separation of them from each other is a completely impossible. Traditionally, public administration is thought of as the accomplishing side of government. It is supposed to comprise all activities involved in carr ying out policies of elect officials and some activities associated with the development of those policies. How these responsibilities are carried out reflect on the legitimacy of the administration, as well as the legitimacy of the government (Fesler & Kettl, 2005). Public administration impacts everyones life in different ways.Public administration allows people working in government to make a positive impact on society. They are organizations and agencies that apply and control different areas of society. Public administration creates and changes public policy programs to respond to the needs and interests of our nation. Every aspect of our daily lives is impacted in some way by the actions of federal, state, or local bureaucracies that manage and organize the public lives of its citizens. Public administration controls everything from the way we travel, our health, our education and our law enforcement.The American Public transportation system Agency improves and advances publ ic transportation. They provide safe, proficient and cost effective transit services, improve services to meet national energy, environmental, and financial concerns. They are responsible for planning, designing, constructing, financial backing and operating transit systems. The Department of wellness and Human Services is the United States governments principal agency for protecting the health of all Americans and providing important human services for those who are not able to help themselves.This public administration includes the FDA, Food and Drug Administration, that assures the safety of foods, cosmetics, safety of pharmaceuticals, biological products, and medical devices. The HRSA, Health Resources and Services Administration, provides access to important health care services for people who are low income, uninsured or who live in rural areas or urban neighborhoods where health care is limited. These agencies are just a few of the many agencies that impact our everyday live s (Fesler & Kettl, 2005).Politics and public administration are intertwined and can never be separated from one another, because they complement each other and are connected in numerous ways. Through politics, members of the government make decisions and public administrators carry them out. Politics are not governed by a single institution, but by a collection of institutions, many of which are specialized. Public administrations on the other hand, have an extensive focus on governance systems.In other words, politics can never be separated from administration, because their functions always club one another. Politics and administration functions both need to be performed to have a successful governance system. Public administration is created as a guide of politics, although others might say that there is politics in public administration. Both of which are true. As new laws are passed and policies change, it is up to the public administrator to implement these changes and car ry them out.It can be a police officer issuing a ticket for a new law that was recently passed or a building evacuation by Department of Buildings inspectors, because a new building code was passed and the building is deemed unsafe to live in. It is simply a vicious circle with politics and public administration. In conclusion, politics and public administration have essential functions which simply cannot exist without each other.

How Do Social Networks Affect Secondary Student Education? Essay

brassing at intimately students, we ingest changed since the beginning of 2000. We quartert live without amicable networks it has become a part of our nonchalant routine. Online amicable media sites kick in gained populationwide growth and popularity, which has led to attracting attention from a variety of global researches. secondary coil students make mapping of favorable networks as a mode to communicate and find answers and in ricochetation about everything. fit to current various research studies, it has been revealed that in modern society sociable networks ofttimes(prenominal) as Face halt, Instagram, and Whatsapp put on become issues to secondary students they affect students health and performance at school, reduce their free time, keep them forth from the family, have a bad influence, grammatically change them, and will open to cyber-bullying.As the young extension tends to spend many hours on sociable networks, they spend less time on education. However , education is an inseparable part of an individuals life. For every teenager, education should be the well-nigh important thing. Today, teenagers show frequently interest in utilise social networks, but, unfortunately, social networks affect education in a forbid way (Kuppuswamy, Narayan 67). accessible networks grab the total attention and concentration of the students and divert them towards non-educational, unethical and inappropriate actions such as useless chatting, wasting time by random searching and not doing their homework. Students argon in deal manner not able to get rid of this addiction during lambaste hours therefore, their concentration decreases and this negatively affects their ability to look at new topics. According to Daily Mail, Experts have confirmed what p arents and teachers already feared youngsters who use Facebook do worse on exams (Clarke 1).The usage of social networks among younger children is high and growing rapidly. The research showed t hat 68% of students who used Facebook had a earthshakingly lower GPA (Clarke 1). Moreover, Facebook rituals such as liking pictures, poking other users and adding applications, can swallow up hours of study time (Clarke 1). According to other surveys, theuse of smartphones to access social network sites during class does not only affect students concentration, it also distracts students from listening and memorizing important information. Inevitably, their exam results fall dramatically. In The Impact of spry Phone Usage on Student Learning, Scott Titsworth and Jeffrey Kuznekoff have shared their survey results. In their survey, there are three student groups.The first group is the control group, who are banned from using their mobile phones during lecture hour. The second group is more free in using of their mobile phones than the first group. The third group, called the high-distraction group, is exclusively free to use their mobile phones during lessons. According to survey r esults, the control group is the most successful in exams, their free recall and maintain details are much better than other groups. The high-distraction group is the pommel in all of the areas.Their short-time memories were affected negatively because of their use of the mobile phones (233). In Negative Effects of brotherly Networking Sites for Students, Steve Armstrong writes Students today have begun to rely on the accessibility of information that is available on the social media platforms specifically as well as the web in general in order to get answers. This doer that there is a reduced focus on learning as well as on retaining information (Armstrong 1). As a result usage of mobile phone during lecture hours has a significant effect on students exam results and memory.Similarly, social networking can impact health. One of the biggest problems is that the phone and computer classs have been proven to cause eyestrain, leading to poor eyesight. The little movement, when the y are staring at a screen has been proven to lead to muscle weakness, less muscle development and, in about cases, bone loss. A number of studies have found characteristics of social networks to be strongly associated with health outcomes for a range of material and psychiatric conditions, and even with mortality rates (Salzinger, Antrobus, and Hammer 2). To prove this statement, nowadays lots of teenagers are tiring glasses or contact lenses.That tells me that using social networks when its not needed, may lead you for a health problems. An article titled Are brotherly Networking Sites Turning Teens into Substance Abusers? tells the reader statistics about how much more plausibly teenagers are to drink or smoke aft(prenominal) being on social networkingsites. teens that use Facebook on a daily basis are three times more likely to drink alcohol and twice as likely to use marijuana than those who do not use Facebook (Jaslow part 2). Moreover, an article called The impact of Soc ial Media on Children states that the likelihood of children who use social network often, can increase their chances of them getting in trouble or becoming depressed (Gwenn, Clarke-Pearson 1).Social networks like Facebook have a large impact on secondary students, often causing clinical depression. The telegraph reported a survey that found out that 53 share of participants verbalize social media sites had changed their behavior, while 51 portion of these said the change had been negative. Furthermore, two thirds of participants have difficulty relaxing and sleeping after using websites, while 55 percent felt worried and uncomfortable when they are unable to log onto their social media accounts (Dunneli 1). As well as that, 28 percent of young Facebook users, uses it all the time.Along with those problems, social media bullying has been consistent problem for teenagers. Since the increase in the usage of social network, it has become easier for people to post one another. Pr ospective problems such as cyber bullying, sexting and inappropriate behavior can occur without the appropriate observe by parents and the lack of regulation associated with todays youth and young individuals. Sexting occurs among the teen population a recent survey revealed, 20% of teens have sent or stick on nude or seminude photographs or videos of themselves (National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned pregnancy 1). Severe, frequent cyber bullying can leave both victims and bullies at greater risk for anxiety, depression, and other stress related disorders (Cyberbullying 1). The most common form of cyber bullying is through messages on platforms such as Facebook and Twitter and instant messaging (Cyber-bullying 1).In some rare but highly publicized cases, some kids have turned to suicide. (Cyberbullying 1). For exemplar, a few age ago a girl named Amanda Todd was cyber-bullied, which caused her to commit suicide. Before her decease, she posted a video where she told how she was blackmailed into exposing herself online. After pictures were posted on Facebook, an online bullying campaign began and the 15 years old girl eventually committed a suicide (Six Unforgettable CyberBullying Cases 1). Another example is the story about Megan Meier. She struggled withattention deficit disorder and depression in addiction to issues with her weight. About a week before her death, a boy named Josh Evans asked Megan to be friends on the social network, MySpace.They began to communicate regularly, although they never met each other. Megan had a lifelong struggle with weight and self-esteem, Tina said on the Foundation website. And now she finally had a boy who she thought really thought she was pretty. However, after Josh didnt want to be friends with her and become more cruel by telling her The world would be a better place without you. The cyber bullying increased when her classmates and friends on MySpace began writing bad messages. Megan couldnt read it all and went to her room, leaving her computer opened and hanged herself in her bedroom closet. She died three weeks before her fourteenth birthday (Six Unforgettable CyberBullying Cases 1).Correspondingly to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suicide is the third leading cause of death among young people with approximately 4,400 deaths every year. Many individuals feel that they cannot handle the impact of being bullied on social media and the stress related to it. Social media bullying makes people feel helpless and increases the risk of individuals who are being bullied to feel as if they will be the talk of the school or t feature. Bullying for the most part has been a continual problem in society. Parents need to educate their children on safer ways to use social media platforms in order to potentially avoid the blitz that is now referred to as social media bullying.Correspondingly, social media influences teenagers greatly. For example, lets take teenage girls they belie ve that to exemplify beauty, you have to be thin like a model, as well as that advertisements encourage them what to wear or how to look. Another example is that media sites discover multiple advertisements such as banner ads and behavior ads that influence teenagers by showing bad example such as smoking, drinking alcohol and using drugs. there are lots of social networks that pop off by gathering information on the person and make them buy a product or use it. Such powerful influences start as soon as children begin to go online (Wilcox, Kunkel, Cantor, Dowrick, Linn, Palmer 2-3).In the same way, social media affect teenagers grammar. Grammar structures, syntax, proper spelling are replaced by easier instance of words, which are called slang. Teens have become quite adept at both thumbing and writing improper text where after they start to use it everywhere, even in their school assignments. Knowledge of grammar and spelling is helpless and this degradation negatively affect s students study. The researchers of New Media & Society passed out a survey that asked students to detail their texting habits, such as how many texts they send and receive, as well as their opinion on the importance of texting. The researchers also asked participants to note the number of adaptations in their last three sent and received text messages. Of the 542 surveys distributed, students completed and returned 228, or 42.1 percent (Matt Swayne, and Andrea Elyse Messer).Usually, when work is done, most teenagers spend their time online, chatting with friends or sound scrolling down the news feed quite a than do something helpful or getting enough sleep. As the research showed the average teenager gets just seven-and-a-half hours sleep a night, despite needing eight to ten hours.(Carey 1). According to the Sleep Foundation, as many as 65 percent of children are estimated to suffer from significant sleep deprivation. Hundreds of thousands of children here also have sleep disor ders, including insomnia. By the time these children are in their teens, using smartphones and tablets into the early hours has become so established that it has its own name, vamping, named after the adolescent vampires who never sleep in the Twilight books and films (Carey 1).Social researcher Danah Boyd, author of the book Its Complicated The Social Lives Of Networked Teens, says that young people would rather be chronically tired and remediate to subterfuge than give up what they regard as me time late at night (Carey 1).The vampire CHILDREN article showed and an example of a girl who spends her free time using social networks. I decompose really easily. My patience disappears and I just want everything on the spot, she says, I stay up until the messages stop. hence I see the time and panic that Ive got to get up soon.Being addicted to the social network can be one of the problems too. According to the capital of the United state of matters Post, 14-year old Ben Knight was a sked about how he spends his time From the time I get home until I go tobed, Im unremarkably on my computer (Ahuja 1). As stated by the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011 American Time usage Survey, high school students spent on average less than an hour per weekday on sports, exercise and sport (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1).Although many people around the world use social networking, it should only be used as a tool. Social networking aids long distance communication greatly, but there must be a stopping point. It cannot become our main form of communication and interaction. If we continue overusing these sites, therefore it will keep affecting our communication, self-expression, bullying, health, friendship and performance at school, grammar and influence in negative ways. There is nothing that can substitute for personal interaction. Social networking is the problem and we must eliminate its overuse by finding hobby or something that you are interested in. Schedule more qu ality time absent from technology driven activities.Work CitedArmstrong, Steve. Negative Effects of Social Networking Sites for Students. Performancing (2012). 25 Mr.2015 American Time practice Survey Summary. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 18 June 2014. Web. 03 Mar. 2015. Cyberbullying. KidsHealth the Webs Most Visited Site about Childrens Health. Ed. Larissa Hirsch. The Nemours Foundation, 01 June 2014. Web. 22 Mar. 2015. Craig Smith. By the Numbers 200+ Amazing Facebook Users Statistics. Expanded Ramblings. DMR, 6 Apr. 2015. Web. 16 Apr. 2015 Cyber-Bullying. What Is Social Networking -. Social Networking, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2015. Jaslow, Ryan. Are social networking sites turning teens into substance abusers? HealthPop CBS news program. Breaking News Headlines Business, Entertainment & World News CBS News, 26 Aug.2011. Web. 14 March 2015. Gwenn Schurgin OKeeffe MD, and Kathleen Clarke-Pearson MD. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Familie. The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families. The American Academy of Pediatrics, n.d. Web. 31 Mar. 2015. Kunkel D, Wilcox BL, Cantor J, Palmer E, Linn S, Dowrick P. Report of the APA Task Force on Advertising and Children. subsection psychological aspects of commercialization of childhood. February 2004. 25 Mar.2015 Kuznekoff, Jeffrey H., and Scott Titsworth. The Impact of Mobile Phone Usage on Student Learning. talk Education. Routledge,12 Feb. 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. Laura Clarke. F Grade for Facebook Students Who Spend Too Much Time on Social Networks Falling Behind in School. Daily Mail (London), 13 Apr. 2009. Web. 09 Mar. 2015. Laura Dunneli. Facebook and Twitter Feed Anxiety, Study Finds. The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 8 July 2012. Web. 23 Mar. 2015. Masuma Ahuja. Teens Are Spending More Time Consuming Media, on Mobile Devices. Washington Post. The Washington Post, 13 Mar. 2013. Web. 26 Feb. 2015. Matt Swayne, and Andrea Elyse Messer. No LOL Matter Tween Texting May Lead to Poor Grammar Skills Penn State University. Penn State News, 25 July 2012. Web. 11 Apr. 2015. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. Sex and tech Results of a Survey of Teens and Young Adults. Washington, DC National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy 2008. 25 Mar.2015 S. Kuppuswamy, P. B. Shankar Narayan, The Impact of Social Networking Websites on the Education of Youth, In International Journal of realistic Communities and Social Networking, Vol. 2, Issue 1, page 67-79, January-March 2010. 15 Mar. 2015 Suzanne Salzinger, John Antrobus, and Muriel Hammer. The First Compendium of Social Network seek Focusing on Children and Young Adult. Google Books. New York State Psychiatric Institute, 2014. Web. 17 Mar. 2015. Six Unforgettable CyberBullying Cases. NoBullyingExpert Advice on Bullying Cyber Bullying. No Bullying, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2015. Tanith Carey. The Vampire CHILDREN Hooked on IPads and Mobiles Late into the Night, They Hardly Sleep. Here Experts scupper the Terrifying Toll on the Generation Dubbed. ..I Can Be on Social Networks until 3am. I Look at the Screens So Much My Eyes Burn and I Get Headaches. Daily Mail (London), 12 Feb. 2015. Web. 09 Mar. 2015.

Memory Organization

wargonhousing prefatorys retentivity is the workspace for the computers chief(prenominal)frame. It is a pro tempore remembering argona where the programs and info being operated on by the processor must reside. Memory stor board is considered temporary beca usance the selective information and programs bequeath re chief(prenominal) there whole as long as the computer has electrical designer or is non reset. Before being shut down or reset, whatever data that has been changed should be saved to a much permanent storage whatchamacallum of some caseful (usu totallyy a hard disk) so it foundation be reloaded into remembrance again in the future. We often clamor reposition tug, for Random entrance fee Memory.Main computer storage is called RAM beca exercise you house randomly (and quickly) access any localisation in memory. When we talk ab come taboo a computers memory, we commonly mean the RAM in the frame, meaning in the main the memory chips or module s that make up the primary active program and data storage utilise by the processor. This is often conf utilize with the term storage, which should be apply when referring to things such as disk and record drives (although some people do consider them a form of memory). 2Types of Memory To better understand somatic memory in a system, it is necessary to count where and how it fits into the system.Three main fonts of physical memory utilize in modern PCs be read- l one(prenominal) storage Read Only Memory fluid dram Dynamic Random Access Memory SRAM Static RAM 2. 1ROM Read Only Memory, or ROM, is a image of memory that stack permanently or semipermanently shield data. It is called read-only because it is either impossible or difficult to write to. ROM is similarly often referred to as non-volatile memory because any data stored in ROM ordain remain, tear down if the power is turned off. As such, ROM is an ideal distance to put the PCs startup instructionsthat i s, the softw atomic number 18 that boots the system.Note that ROM and RAM ar not opposites, as some people seem to believe. In fact, ROM is technically a subset of the systems RAM. In other words, a portion of the systems Random Access Memory carry on space is mapped into integrity(a) or more ROM chips. This is necessary to contain the software that enables the PC to boot up otherwise, the proces- sor would squander no program in memory to execute when it was powered on. For example, when a PC is turned on, the processor automatically jumps to address FFFF0h, expecting to find instructions to tell the processor what to do.This location is exactly 16 bytes from the ending of the startle megabyte of RAM space, and the end of the ROM. If this location was mapped into regular memory 1 chips, any data stored there would ready disappeared when the power was turned off previously, and the processor would subsequently find no instructions to run the next time power was turned on. By placing a ROM chip at this address, a system startup program elicit be permanently loaded into the ROM and will be available e actually time the system is turned on. The motherboard ROM normally contains four main programs, including the following in roughly systems POST Power-On Self Test.A series of test routines that run across the system components are direct properly. CMOS Setup A menu-driven application that furnishs the user to set sys- tem configuration parameters, options, security settings, and preferences. Bootstrap loader The routine that prototypical s weeds the floppy drive and then the hard disk, looking for an operating system to load. BIOS Basic Input/ emergeput System. A series of art number one wood programs designed to present a old-hat interface to the elementary system hardware, e superfluously hardware that must be active during the boot process. iv different types of ROM chips are ROM. Read Only Memory PROM. Programmable ROM erasable pr ogrammable read-only memory. Erasable PROM EEPROM. electrically Erasable PROM, overly called a flash ROM No matter which type of ROM you use, the data stored in a ROM chip is non- volatile and will remain indefinitely un little intentionally erased or overwritten. 2. 1. 1PROM PROMs are a type of ROM that is blank when raw and must be programmed with whatever data you want 2. 1. 2EPROM One variation of the PROM that has been very popular is the EPROM. An EPROM is a PROM that is erasable. EPROM is erased by exposure to intense UV light. 2. 1. 3 EEPROM/ scud ROMA newer type of ROM is the EEPROM, which stands for electrically Erasable PROM. These chips are in any case called flash ROMs, and are characterized by their capability to be erased and reprogrammed straight in the circuit board in which they are installed, with no special equipment required. 2 2. 2 dram Dynamic RAM is the type of memory chip used for most of the main memory in a modern PC. The main advantages of DRAM is th at it is very dense, meaning you bunghole pack a lot of chips into a very footling chip, and it is very in pricy, which makes it affordable for large summations of memory.The memory cells in a DRAM chip are fiddling capacitors that retain a charge to indicate a bit. The problem with DRAM is that it is dynamic, and because of the design must be constantly refurbished or the electrical charges in the individual memory capacitors will drain and the data will be lost. Refresh occurs when the system memory controller shits a tiny break and accesses all the rows of data in the memory chips. DRAMs use only one transistor and capacitor pair per bit, which makes them very dense, offering a lot of memory capacity per chip than other types of memory. 2. 3 Cache MemorySRAMThere is other(prenominal) distinctly different type of memory that is signifi crumbtly hot than most types of DRAM. SRAM stands for Static RAM, which is so call downd because it does not need the periodic refresh rat es equivalent DRAM (Dynamic RAM). Due to the design of SRAM, not only are refresh rates unnecessary, nevertheless SRAM is much faster than DRAM and is fully able to go for pace with modern processors. SRAM memory is available in access times of 2ns or less, which means it can keep pace with processors running 500MHz or faster This is ascribable to the SRAM design, which calls for a cluster of six transistors for all(prenominal) bit of storage.The use of transistors but no capacitors means that refresh rates are not necessary because there are no capacitors to lose their charges over time. As long as there is power, SRAM will remember what is stored. Compared to DRAM, SRAM is much faster, but also much lower in density and much more expensive. The lower density means that SRAM chips are physically larger and store many less bits overall. The gritty tot up of transistors and the clustered design means that SRAM chips are both physically larger and much more expensive to modern ize than DRAM chips.Even though SRAM is too expensive for PC use as main memory, PC designers make up found a appearance to use SRAM to dramatically improve PC surgical operation. quite an than spend the money for all RAM to be SRAM memory, which can run fast overflowing to the Tempter the CPU, it is much more cost-effective to design in a small amount of last-speed SRAM memory, called accumulate memory. The cache runs at speeds close to or level(p) equal to the processor, and is the memory from which the processor normally directly reads from and writes to. During read trading operations, the data in the high-speed cache memory is resupplied from the lower-speed main memory or DRAM in advance. 3Memory Packaging Memory is made from tiny semiconductor chips and must be packaged into something less fragile and tiny in order to be integrated with the rest of the system Different types of memory paclages are Dual Inline Packages (DIPs) and Memory Modules Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs) Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) 3. 1DIPS close to memory chips are packaged into small plastic or ceramic packages called dual inline packages or DIPs. A DIP is a rectangular package with rows of pins running along its two longer edges These are the small black boxes you see on SIMMs, DIMMs or other larger packaging styles . 2SIMMs SIMMs are available in two flavors 30 pin and 72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the older archetype, and were popular on third and fourth generation motherboards. 72-pin SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth generation PCs. SIMMs are placed into special sockets on the motherboard created to hold them. The sockets are specifically designed to ensure that once inserted, the SIMM will be held in place tightly 3. 3DIMMs DIMMs are 168 pins in size, and provide memory 64 bits in width. They are a newer form ingredient and are meet the de facto standard for new PCs they are not used on older motherboards motherboards.SIMMs consume contacts o n either side of the circuit board but they are tied together. So a 30-pin SIMM has 30 contacts on each side of the circuit board, but each pair is connected. DIMMs however take aim different connections on each side of the circuit board 4Memory Banks Memory chips (DIPs, SIMMs, SIPPs, and DIMMs) are organized in banks on motherboards and memory card game. The banks usually correspond to the data bus capacity of the systems microprocessor. The routine of bits for each bank can be made up of single chips, SIMMs, or DIMMs. 4 5Memory ReliabilityA dowry of the nature of memory is that it will inevitably fail. These calamitys are usually classified as two basic types hard fails and soft delusions. The most well understood are hard fails, in which the chip is operative and then, due to some flaw, physical damage, or other event, becomes damaged and experiences a permanent failure. Fixing this type of failure normally requires replacement of some part of the memory hardware, such as t he chip, SIMM, or DIMM. grievous shift rates are do itn as HERs. The other more insidious type of failure is the soft error.A soft error is a nonpermanent failure that may never reoccur, or occur at infrequent intervals. (Soft fails are effectively fixed by powering the system off and grit on. ) Soft error rates are known as SERs. There are basically three levels and techniques for fault valuation account used in modern PCs Non-parity Parity ECC (Error Correcting Code) Non-parity systems hit no fault tolerance at all. The reason they are even used is because they squander the lowest inherent cost. No additive memory is necessary as is the case with parity or ECC techniques. 6ParityTne standard IBM set for the industry is that the memory chips in a bank of nine each handle one bit of data octonary bits per character positive one extra bit called the parity bit. As the eight individual bits in a byte are stored in memory, a parity genera- tor/checker, which is either par t of the CPU or laid in a special chip on the motherboard, evaluates the data bits by counting the number of 1s in the byte. If an even number of 1s is in the byte, the parity generator/checker creates a 1 and stores it as the one-ninth bit (parity bit) in the parity memory chip.That makes the total sum for all nine bits an odd number. If the pilot sum of the eight data bits is an odd number, the parity bit created is 0, keeping the 9-bit sum an odd number. The economic nourish of the parity bit is always chosen so that the sum of all nine bits (eight data bits plus one parity bit) is an odd number. The following examples may make it easier to understand entropy bit number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Data bit value10110011 Parity bit0 5 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an odd number (5), the parity bit must have a value of 0 to ensure an odd sum for all nine bits.The following is another example Data bit number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Data bit value 001100 11 Parity bit 1 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an even number (4), the parity bit must have a value of 1 to create an odd sum for all nine bits. When the system reads memory back from storage, it checks the parity information. If a (9-bit) byte has an even number of bits with a parity bit value of 1, that byte must have an error. The system cannot tell which bit has changed, or if only a single bit has changed.If three bits changed, for example, the byte free flags a parity-check error if two bits changed, however, the bad byte may pass unnoticed. The following examples show parity-check messages for three types of systems For the IBM PC PARITY CHECK x For the IBM XT PARITY CHECK x yyyyy (z) For the IBM AT and late copy XT PARITY CHECK x yyyyy Where x is 1 or 2 1=Erroroccurredonthemotherboard 2=Erroroccurredinanexpansiontime slot yyyyy represents a number from 00000 by FFFFF that indicates, in hexadecimal notation, the byte in which th e error has occurred. Where (z) is (S) or (E ) S) = Parity error occurred in the system unit (E ) = Parity error occurred in the expansion chassis When a parity-check error is detected, the motherboard parity-checking cir- cuits generate a non-maskable interrupt (NMI), which halts processing and di- 6 verts the systems attention to the error. The NMI causes a routine in the ROM to be executed. The routine clears the masking and then displays a message in the upper-left corner of the screen. The message differs depending on the type of computer system. 7 ECC (Error Correcting Code) ECC goes a big step beyond childly parity error detection.Rather than just detecting an error, ECC allows a single bit error to be corrected, which means the system can continue on without interruption and without corrupting data. ECC as apply in most PCs can only detect and not correct double-bit errors. Because studies have indicated that approximately 98 percent of memory errors are single- bit varie ty, the most commonly used type of ECC is one in which the attendant memory controller detects and corrects single-bit errors in an accessed data word (double-bit errors can be detected, but not corrected).This type of ECC is known as SEC-DED and requires an additional seven check bits over 32 bits in a 4-byte system and eight check bits in an 8-byte system. ECC in a 4-byte system obviously costs more than non-parity or parity, but in an 8-byte system, ECC and parity costs are equal. ECC entails the memory controller calculating the check bits on a memory- write operation, performing a compare between the read and calculated check- bits on a read operation and, if necessary, correcting bad bit(s).The additional ECC logic in the memory controller is not very significant in this age of inex- pensive, high- mathematical operation VLSI logic, but ECC actually affects memory perfor- mance on writes. This is because the operation must be clock to wait for the calculation of check bits and , when the system waits for corrected data, reads. On a partial-word write, the entire word must prototypical be read, the affected byte(s) rewritten, and then new check bits calculated. This turns partial-word write operations into slower read-modify writes. Most memory errors are of a single-bit nature, which are correctable by ECC.Incorporating this fault-tolerant technique provides high system dependability and attendant availability. An ECC- base system is a good choice for servers, workstations, or mission-critical applications in which the cost of a emf memory error outweighs the additional memory and system cost to correct it, along with ensuring that it does not take out from system reliability. 8 The System Logical Memory Layout The original PC had a total of 1M of available memory, and the top 384K of that was reserved for use by the system.Placing this reserved space at the top (between 640K and 1024K instead of at the bottom, between 0K and 640K) led to what today is often called the conventional memory barrier. The constant pressures on system and fringy manufacturers to maintain compatibility by never breaking from the original memory scheme of the first PC has resulted in 7 a system memory structure that is (to put it kindly) a mess. Logical memory sections are given below Conventional (Base) memory Upper Memory vault of heaven (UMA) High Memory Area (HMA) Extended memory (XMS) Expanded memory (obsolete) ikon RAM memory (part of UMA) Adapter ROM and fussy Purpose RAM (part of UMA) Motherboard ROM BIOS (part of UMA) 8. 1 Conventional (Base) Memory The original PC/XT-type system was designed to use 1M of memory workspace, sometimes called RAM (random access memory). This 1M of RAM is dissever into several sections, some of which have special uses. country can read and write to the entire megabyte, but can manage the lading of programs only in the portion of RAM space called conventional memory, which was 512K at the time the fir st PC was introduced.The other 512K was reserved for use by the system, including the motherboard and adapter boards plugged into the system slots. After introducing the system, IBM decided that only 384K was needed for these reserved uses, and the company began marketing PCs with 640K of user memory. Thus, 640K became the standard for memory that can be used by DOS for running programs, and is often termed the 640K memory barrier. The remaining memory after 640K was reserved for use by the art boards, other adapters, and the motherboard ROM BIOS.This barrier largely affects 16-bit software such as DOS and Windows 3. 1, and is much less of a factor with 32-bit software and operating systems such as Windows 95/98, NT, and so on. 8. 2 Upper Memory Area (UMA) The term Upper Memory Area (UMA) describes the reserved 384K at the top of the first megabyte of system memory on a PC/XT and the first megabyte on an AT-type system. This memory has the addresses from A0000 through FFFFF. The w ay the 384K of upper memory is used breaks down as follows The first 128K after conventional memory is called icon RAM.It is re- served for use by depiction adapters. When schoolbook and graphics are displayed onscreen, the electronic impulses that contain their images reside in this space. Video RAM is allotted the address consecrate from A0000-BFFFF. 8 The next 128K is reserved for the adapter BIOS that resides in read-only memory chips on some adapter boards plugged into the bus slots. Most VGA-compatible video adapters use the first 32K of this area for their onboard BIOS. The rest can be used by any other adapters installed. Many network adapters also use this area for special-purpose RAM called divided up Memory.Adapter ROM and special-purpose RAM is allotted the address range from C0000-DFFFF. The last 128K of memory is reserved for motherboard BIOS (the basic input signal/output system, which is stored in read-only RAM chips or ROM). The POST (Power-On Self Test) and bootstrap loader, which handles your system at bootup until the operating system takes over, also reside in this space. Most systems only use the last 64K (or less) of this space, leaving the first 64K or more free for remapping with memory managers. Some systems also include the CMOS Setup program in this area.The motherboard BIOS is allotted the address range from E0000-FFFFF. 8. 3Extended Memory The memory map on a system ground on the 286 or higher processor can extend beyond the 1M boundary that exists when the processor is in real mode. On a 286 or 386SX system, the extended memory limit is 16M on a 386DX, 486, Pentium, Pentium MMX, or Pentium Pro system, the extended memory limit is 4G (4,096M). Systems based on the Pentium II processor have a limit of 64G (65,536M). For a system to address memory beyond the first megabyte, the processor must be in protected modethe native mode of 286 and higher processors.On a 286, only programs designed to run in protected mode can take a dvantage of extended memory. 386 and higher processors offer another mode, called practical(prenominal) real mode, which enables extended memory to be, in effect, chopped into 1M pieces (each its own real-mode session). Virtual real mode also allows for several of these sessions to be running simultaneously in protected areas of memory. The extended memory specification (XMS) was essential in 1987 by Mi- crosoft, Intel, AST Corp. , and Lotus Development to specify how programs would use extended memory.The XMS specification functions on systems based on the 286 or higher and allows real-mode programs (those designed to run in DOS) to use extended memory and another block of memory usually out of the reach of DOS. Before XMS, there was no way to ensure cooperation between programs that switched the processor into protected mode and used extended memory. There was also no way for one program to know what another had been doing with the extended memory because none of them could see that memory charm in real mode. HIMEM.SYS becomes an arbitrator of sorts that first grabs all the extended memory for itself and then doles it out to programs that know the XMS protocols. In this manner, several programs that use XMS memory can operate together under DOS on the same system, switching the pro- cessor into 9 and out of protected mode to access the memory. Extended memory can be made to conform to the XMS specification by installing a de- vice driver in the CONFIG. SYS file. The most common XMS driver is HIMEM. SYS, which is included with Windows 3. x and later versions of DOS, showtime with 4. and up. 8. 4 High Memory Area (HMA) The High Memory Area (HMA) is an area of memory 16 bytes short of 64K in size, starting at the beginning of the first megabyte of extended memory. It can be used to load invention drivers and memory-resident programs to free up conventional memory for use by real-mode programs. Only one device driver or memory-resident program can be loaded into HMA at one time, no matter what its size. Originally, this could be any program, but Microsoft decided that DOS could get there first, and built capability into DOS 5 and newer versions.The HMA area is extremely important to those who use DOS 5 or higher because these DOS versions can move their own kernel ( somewhat 45K of program instructions) into this area. This is accomplished simply by first loading an XMS driver (such as HIMEM. SYS) and adding the line DOS=HIGH to your CONFIG. SYS file. Taking advantage of this DOS capability frees another 45K or so of conventional memory for use by real-mode programs by essentially mov- ing 45K of program code into the first segment of extended memory.Although this memory was supposed to be accessible in protected mode only, it turns out that a defect in the design of the original 286 (which, fortunately, has been propa penetrationd forward to the more recent processors as a feature) accidentally al- lows access to most of the first se gment of extended memory while still in real mode. The use of the HMA is controlled by the HIMEM. SYS or equivalent driver. The origins of this memory usage are interesting because they are based on a bug in the original 286 processor carried forward through even the Pentium II. 8. 5 Expanded MemorySome older programs can use a type of memory called Expanded Memory Spec- ification or EMS memory. contrary conventional (the first megabyte) or extended (the second through 16th or 4,096th megabytes) memory, expanded memory is not directly addressable by the processor. Instead, it can only be accessed through a 64K window and small 16K paginates established in the UMA. Expanded memory is a segment or bank-switching scheme in which a custom memory adapter has a large number of 64K segments onboard, com- bined with special switching and mapping hardware. The system uses a free segment in the UMA as the legal residence address for the EMS board.After this 64K is filled with data, the boa rd rotates the filled segment out and a new, empty segment appears to take its place. In this fashion, you have a board that can keep on rotating in new segments to be filled with data. Because only one segment can be seen or oper- ated on at one time, EMS is very inefficient for program code and is normally 10 only used for data. 9Video Memory The video memory is such an important component of the video card, and indirectly the entire PC, that several new memory technologies have been created specifically for it.The goal to improve the speed with which information can be pumped into and out of the video memory, to keep system performance high as the video system tries to do more and more. Various memory technologies now being used on video cards are explained below. 9. 1 Standard (Fast Page Mode) DRAM The oldest technology used in video card memory, fast page mode (FPM) memory is now considered standard DRAM as it has the fewest performanceenhancing capabilities of the different ty pes of memory on the market. FPM DRAM is a technology used primarily for main system memories (even there, it is now considered a scummy performer) and is not really ell-suited for highperformance video applications. 11 FPM is the least expensive type of memory available for video, and is used today mostly on low-end or generic cards (as well as older cards of take to the woods). For many applications they can be quite satisfactory however, they reach their limits quickly when trying to use high resolution modes, especially in true discolor. The limitations of standard DRAM are due to two primary effects it is single ported (which means it can only do one access at a time) and it runs at a relatively low speed and access width. 9. 2 Extended Data Out (capital of Japan) DRAMEDO DRAM is the same as standard FPM DRAM except for a slight modification in the access cycle that gives it a small performance boost. With EDO DRAM, one read to memory can begin before the last one has get a longly finished this yields a raw speed procession of between 5 and 20 percent, depending on whom you ask. Originally used only for main system memory, EDO DRAM is becoming more popular on video cards because it provides slightly improved performance over standard DRAM at the same cost. (At one time EDO was more expensive than FPM but due to supply and demand effects now, EDO is actually the same cost or lower).EDO is still, however, a low-cost and low-performance solution compared to other types of video memory, and is not used on high-end cards. 9. 3 Video RAM (VRAM) The traditional, standard DRAM used for video cards typically does not have enough bandwidth to handle the demands of running a card at high resolution and color depths, with acceptable refresh rates. The main reason why is the two competing access factors for the video memory the processor writing new information to the memory, and the RAMDAC reading it many times per second in order to send video signals to the mon itor.To address this fundamental limitation, a new type of memory was created called video RAM or VRAM. As the name implies, this memory is specifically tailored for use in video systems. The fundamental difference between VRAM and standard DRAM is that VRAM is dual-ported. This means that it has two access paths, and can be written to and read from simultaneously. The advantages of this are of course enormous given what the video card does many times per second a new screen image is calculated and written to the memory, and many times per second this memory is read and sent to the monitor.Dual- porting allows these operations to occur without bumping into each other. VRAM provides substantially more bandwidth than either standard DRAM or EDO DRAM double in many cases. It is more suited for use in systems requiring high resolution and color depth displays. The only reason that it hasnt replaced standard DRAM entirely is of course cost. VRAM is more labyrinthian and requires more si licon per bit than standard DRAM, which makes it cost more. 12 9. 4Window RAM (WRAM)Window RAM or WRAM is a modification of regular VRAM that both improves performance and reduces cost on a bit-for-bit basis. Designed specifically for use in graphics cards, WRAM is also dual-ported but has about 25% more bandwidth than VRAM, and also incorporates additional features to allow for higher performance memory transfers for commonly used graphical operations such as text drawing and block fills. Furthermore, WRAM is less expensive than VRAM to manufacture (although still more expensive than DRAM). 9. 5 synchronic Graphics RAM (SGRAM)A relatively newer RAM technology, Synchronous Graphics RAM or SGRAM tackles the poor performance of regular DRAM by increasing greatly the speed at which memory transfers take place. SGRAM also incorporates specific per- formance enhancing features designed to work with acceleration features built into video cards, to greatly improve overall video processing speed. SGRAM is still single-ported, unlike VRAM or WRAM, but offers performance that is much closer to VRAM than DRAM due to its advanced design. 10 Flash Memory DevicesFlash memory has been around for several years as a main or an auxiliary storage medium for notebook computer computers. However, the rise of devices such as digital cameras and MP3 players and the presence of USB ports on practically all recent systems have transformed this technology from a break product into a mainstream must-have storage technology. Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that is divided into blocks rather than bytes, as with normal RAM memory modules. Flash memory, which also is used in most recent computers for BIOS chips, is changed by a process known as Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.This process removes the charge from the floating gate associated with each memory cell. Flash memory then must be erased before it can be charged with new data. The speed, low reprogramming current requiremen ts, and compact size of recent flash memory devices have made flash memory a perfect counterpart for portable devices such as notebook computers and digital cameras, which often refer to flash memory devices as so-called digital film. Unlike real film, digital film can be erased and reshot.Ultra-compact, USB-based keychain drives that use flash memory are surrogate both traditional floppy drives and Zip/SuperDisk drives for transporting data between systems. Diiferent types of flash memory devices are expained below. 10. 1Compact Flash CompactFlash was developed by SanDisk Corporation in 1994 and uses ATA architecture to emulate a disk drive a CompactFlash device attached to a com- 13 puter has a disk drive letter just like your other drives. Later types of flash memory also use ATA architecture, either implemented in the device itself or in its controller. 0. 2MultiMedia Card The MultiMediaCard (MMC) was codeveloped by SanDisk and Infineon Tech- nologies AG (formerly Siemens AG) i n November 1997 for use with smart phones, MP3 players, digital cameras, and camcorders. The MMC uses a simple 7-pin serial interface to devices and contains low-voltage flash memory. 10. 3Secure Digital (SD) A SecureDigital (SD) storage device is about the same size as MMC , but its a more sophisticated product. SD, which was codeveloped by Toshiba, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic), and SanDisk in 1999, gets its name from two special features.The first is encrypted storage of data for additional security, come across current and future Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI) standards for portable devices. The second is a mechanic write-protection switch. 10. 4Pen Drive As an alternative to floppy and Zip/SuperDisk-class removable-media drives, USB-based flash memory devices are rapidly becoming the preferred way to move data between systems. The first successful drive of this type travels ThumbDrivewas introduced in 2000 and has spawned many imitators, in- cluding many that inc orporate a keychain or pocket clip to mark their portability.Unlike other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives dont require a separate card reader they can be plugged in to any USB port or hub. Al- though a driver is usually required for Windows 98 and Windows 98SE, most USB keychain drives can be read immediately by newer versions of Windows, particularly Windows XP. As with other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives are assigned a drive letter when connected to the computer. Most have capacities ranging from 128MB to 1GB, with some capacities as high as 2GB or more.However, typical read/write performance of USB 1. 1-compatible drives is about 1MBps. Hi-Speed USB keychain drives are much faster, providing read speeds ranging from 5MBps to 15MBps and write speeds ranging from 5MBps to 13MBps. 11Advanced Memory Technologies 11. 1RDRAM RDRAM is a proprietary technology made by Rambus Inc. for use exclusively in certain Intel compatible motherboards 14 RDRAM stands for Ram bus Dynamic Random Access Memory. It can access data anywhere on the chip It requires power to hold its data and it transfers data double per clock signal.However, it uses a smaller pathway, or system bus, to send information. The Rambus system bus is 16-bits wide. Rambus transfers data at 800 megahertz (MHz) and faster. Rambus is the more expensive type of memory since its proprietary, royalty costs that manufacturers must pay to produce it tend to result in higher retail prices. Additionally, Rambus compatible motherboards require that all of their RAM slots be occupied. Traditionally, a computer may contain anywhere from one to four ram slots. If a slot is unoccupied, the system still operates.Rambus requires that either a Rambus memory module or a kind of place holder known as a continuity module be in place to complete the memory path to the bus. 11. 2 DDR SDRAM (DDR) Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM memory is a JEDEC-created standard that is an evolutionary upgrade of standard SDR AM in which data is transferred twice as quickly. Instead of doubling the actual clock rate, DDR memory achieves the doubling in performance by transferring twice per transfer cycle once at the leading (falling) edge and once at the trailing (rising) edge of the cycle.This effectively doubles the transfer rate, even though the same overall clock and timing signals are used. Since its inception, manufacturers have release new and faster versions of DDR. These are based on the use of prefetch buffers that access not only the memory, or dataword, requested by the processor but also the datawords adjacent to it on the chip. Thus DDR2 fetches four datawords per memory access, double the amount of DDR. DDR3, a more recent update, obtains eight datawords per access. 15